Episode 36: The Marathas, Mysore, and the Contest for India

Two stories are especially important for understanding this period. The first is the rise of the Marathas, whose power expanded from the western Deccan into central and northern India. The second is the transformation of Mysore into a formidable military state under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. Their histories reveal how Indian rulers responded to changing circumstances and why the company's expansion encountered determined resistance.

The Maratha Confederacy After Shivaji

The Maratha political movement had grown during the seventeenth century under Shivaji Bhonsle, who challenged Mughal authority and the Deccan sultanates while building a state centred on forts, mobile forces, and regional alliances. Shivaji was crowned in 1674, establishing a royal title that strengthened his claim to independent sovereignty. His government drew support from the Marathi-speaking regions of the western Deccan, but its ambitions extended beyond any single linguistic or geographical community.

After Shivaji's death in 1680, the Marathas endured years of warfare against the Mughal Empire. His son Sambhaji was captured and executed by Mughal forces in 1689. Resistance continued under Rajaram and later under Tarabai, who helped sustain the struggle while Mughal armies attempted to destroy Maratha strongholds. The long conflict drained Mughal resources and demonstrated the difficulty of imposing lasting control over the rugged Deccan.

Aurangzeb's death in 1707 created new opportunities for the Marathas. Shahu, Shivaji's grandson, was released from Mughal captivity and returned to the Deccan, where he competed with Tarabai for leadership. The dispute was eventually resolved in a way that left Shahu as the leading claimant at Satara, while other Maratha centres retained their own political importance. The settlement did not create a perfectly unified state. Instead, it helped produce a political structure in which the ruler's authority increasingly depended on powerful ministers and military leaders.

One of the most important offices was that of the Peshwa, originally a senior minister who gradually became the principal executive authority. Balaji Vishwanath strengthened the position of the Peshwa during Shahu's reign, building relationships with Maratha chiefs and securing political and financial arrangements with the Mughal court. His son, Baji Rao I, who became Peshwa in 1720, took the Maratha expansion into a new phase.

Baji Rao was a gifted cavalry commander who believed that the weakening Mughal Empire offered opportunities for the Marathas to extend their influence northward. His campaigns relied on speed, intelligence, flexible cavalry forces, and the ability to strike at opponents before they could concentrate their armies. Rather than attempting to occupy every territory directly, Maratha leaders often sought tribute and revenue rights, allowing them to extend influence without creating a uniform system of administration everywhere they campaigned.

The Maratha victory at Palkhed in 1728 against the forces of the Nizam of Hyderabad demonstrated Baji Rao's ability to use mobility and manoeuvre against a more conventionally organised opponent. His campaigns later brought Maratha forces into central India and toward Delhi. In 1737, they mounted a daring advance into the vicinity of the Mughal capital, demonstrating that the imperial government could no longer assume that its heartland was safe from regional challengers.

These successes made the Marathas one of the dominant powers in India. However, their expansion also created new challenges. The confederacy depended on the cooperation of leaders whose ambitions did not always align. Its chiefs could pursue their own campaigns, establish regional bases, and negotiate separate arrangements. This flexibility helped the Marathas expand rapidly, but it could make sustained coordination difficult when they faced a powerful and organised opponent.

The Maratha Confederacy Becomes a Major Power

During the middle decades of the eighteenth century, Maratha power spread across a vast area of the subcontinent. Their influence reached into Malwa, Gujarat, Bundelkhand, and parts of northern India, while their political and military networks extended through a growing number of regional courts. Maratha leaders claimed revenues from territories beyond their direct control, often using the threat of military intervention to enforce their demands. These arrangements could provide income without requiring the full costs of governing every district, but they could also provoke resistance from local rulers and landholders.

Two revenue claims were particularly important. Chauth generally referred to a demand equivalent to a quarter of the assessed revenue, while sardeshmukhi was an additional claim associated with Maratha authority. The actual arrangements varied by region and political circumstances. These claims were not simply taxes collected by a central bureaucracy. They were part of a wider system of military pressure, negotiation, local agreements, and competing claims to sovereignty.

The Maratha political structure increasingly developed into a confederacy. The Peshwa's government at Pune remained highly influential, but major houses acquired their own territorial bases. The Scindias became powerful in central and northern India, the Holkars established influence in Malwa, the Gaekwads strengthened their position in Gujarat, and the Bhonsles expanded into the eastern regions around Nagpur. These houses cooperated when their interests aligned, but they also pursued individual ambitions.

This system was effective when leaders could combine their resources against a common opponent. It was less reliable when a campaign demanded long-term coordination or when different chiefs disagreed over territory, revenue, and leadership. The Marathas were not a unified nation-state in the modern sense, nor were they merely a loose collection of raiders. They were a sophisticated political and military network whose methods of expansion suited the opportunities of the eighteenth century, but whose internal rivalries could become serious weaknesses.

The Maratha experience also reveals that political fragmentation did not automatically benefit the English company. For much of the eighteenth century, the Marathas were stronger than the company in several important respects, especially in their ability to mobilise forces across large areas of India. Company officials had to calculate their moves carefully, seek allies, and avoid confrontations that might exhaust their resources. The rise of British power was still uncertain, and the Marathas remained central to the struggle for the subcontinent.

The Rise of Mysore Under Haidar Ali

While the Marathas expanded across western and central India, another important power was developing in the south. Mysore, situated in the southern interior of the subcontinent, had long been ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty. During the eighteenth century, however, military commanders and ministers gained increasing influence over the state. Among the most important figures to emerge from this environment was Haidar Ali.

Haidar Ali was not born into a royal dynasty. He came from a military family and advanced through service, battlefield experience, and political opportunity. He learned how to build alliances, manage troops, and take advantage of rivalries among powerful figures. By the 1750s and early 1760s, he had become the dominant authority in Mysore, although the Wodeyar ruler remained in place as a formal monarch.

Haidar Ali's rise reflected a wider pattern in eighteenth-century India. As older political structures weakened or changed, military commanders could build independent power by offering rulers effective armies and reliable administration. Their authority depended on maintaining soldiers, securing revenue, rewarding supporters, and defeating rivals. Haidar Ali was particularly effective at connecting military expansion with the resources needed to sustain it.

Mysore occupied a strategically important position between the eastern and western coasts of southern India. Its territory connected inland agricultural regions with commercial routes leading toward ports on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Control over this region could affect trade, access to supplies, and the balance of power among the states of southern India. Mysore's ambitions therefore brought it into conflict with the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the rulers of the Carnatic, and the English East India Company.

Haidar Ali strengthened Mysore's military forces, employing Indian soldiers alongside European specialists and adapting techniques associated with contemporary warfare. He expanded the use of firearms and artillery and developed forces capable of operating against both regional opponents and European-led armies. His military system was not simply a copy of European practice. It combined local experience, cavalry, infantry, artillery, and political intelligence according to the needs of Mysore's campaigns.

The state also depended on revenue from agriculture and commerce. Maintaining a standing army required regular payments and supplies, while campaigns could disrupt the same productive regions on which the government depended. Haidar Ali had to balance the immediate demands of war with the longer-term need to preserve his political base. This challenge would become even more severe as Mysore entered a sustained struggle with the English company.

Why the English Company Feared Mysore

The English East India Company had established its strongest early position in southern India around Madras, while the French maintained their important settlement at Pondicherry. The Carnatic and its surrounding territories were therefore central to European competition, but Mysore's growing military strength complicated the ambitions of both companies.

For the English, Mysore was dangerous because it possessed a capable army and was governed by a ruler who understood the importance of military preparation. Haidar Ali was also willing to negotiate with European rivals when doing so could improve his position. He did not accept the idea that the company should have a special right to intervene in the affairs of southern Indian states.

The company's regional policy was driven by commercial and strategic concerns. It wanted to protect Madras, secure trade routes, and prevent hostile powers from gaining control of neighbouring territories. Its officials also sought alliances with Indian rulers who could provide troops, money, or diplomatic support. These aims frequently brought the company into disputes that had begun as conflicts among Indian states.

Haidar Ali, meanwhile, regarded the company's growing influence with suspicion. He had seen how the English had intervened in the Carnatic and Bengal, using military assistance and political agreements to gain commercial privileges and influence over rulers. He had little reason to believe that the company would remain a neutral trading partner if it could obtain territorial or financial advantages through war.

Mysore's position was complicated by its relationships with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad. These powers sometimes fought one another, but they could also cooperate when their interests aligned. The English company attempted to use these rivalries to its advantage, while Haidar Ali sought to prevent hostile coalitions from surrounding Mysore. Alliances in this period were often temporary, and rulers could change their position when the balance of power shifted.

The struggle that followed would test the company's ability to fight a determined Indian state on its own territory. It would also reveal that European military techniques did not guarantee victory when opponents had effective leadership, access to resources, and a clear understanding of local geography.

The First Anglo-Mysore War

The First Anglo-Mysore War began in 1767, after a series of disputes and shifting alliances involving Mysore, the English company, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Marathas. At different points, the Nizam and the English attempted to cooperate against Haidar Ali, but the arrangement proved unstable. Haidar Ali used diplomacy and military manoeuvre to weaken the coalition against him, demonstrating that alliances based on immediate advantage could collapse when their members disagreed over the distribution of gains.

The conflict was fought across a difficult landscape of hills, fortified positions, agricultural settlements, and roads connecting the interior with the coast. Supply lines mattered greatly because armies required food, ammunition, animals, and transport. A commander who could move quickly and threaten the enemy's communications might achieve more than one who simply sought a decisive battlefield engagement.

Haidar Ali used mobility to pressure the company's forces and its allies. His cavalry could move rapidly through the countryside, while his infantry and artillery provided support during larger operations. The English company possessed disciplined troops and naval connections, but it was not immune to logistical difficulties or the problems created by uncertain allies.

In 1769, Haidar Ali advanced toward Madras and compelled the English company to negotiate. The resulting Treaty of Madras restored captured territories and included commitments for mutual assistance under specified circumstances. For Haidar Ali, the agreement represented a diplomatic success. He had demonstrated that Mysore could challenge the company and force it to negotiate rather than dictate terms.

The treaty did not establish a lasting peace. Mutual distrust remained, and the question of assistance against future enemies would become a major source of conflict. Haidar Ali believed that the company had failed to provide the support he expected during a later confrontation with the Marathas. The English, meanwhile, continued to pursue alliances that could strengthen their position in southern India.

The First Anglo-Mysore War was an important warning for the company. Its growing power in Bengal did not mean it could easily dominate every Indian state. Mysore remained a formidable opponent, and Haidar Ali had shown that military strength combined with effective diplomacy could force the company to accept a settlement on terms it did not entirely control.

Tipu Sultan and the Modernisation of Mysore

Haidar Ali's son, Tipu Sultan, became one of the most influential rulers in southern India. He had gained military experience during his father's campaigns and understood that Mysore's survival depended on maintaining an effective army, a functioning revenue system, and access to international trade. When he succeeded his father in 1782, during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, he inherited a state already engaged in a struggle that would shape the future of India.

Tipu Sultan is remembered for his determined opposition to the English company, but his reign involved much more than warfare. He sought to strengthen Mysore's administration, improve the organisation of its armed forces, and expand its commercial activities. His government supported manufacturing, developed state-controlled trading arrangements in selected commodities, and pursued diplomatic contacts with foreign powers that might help counter British influence.

Mysore's military forces included infantry, cavalry, artillery, and specialised rocket units. Iron-cased rockets had been used in the region before Tipu's reign, but his government developed and deployed them on a larger and more organised scale. These weapons could travel considerable distances and create disruption among opposing troops, particularly when used in coordinated attacks. British forces encountered Mysorean rockets during the Anglo-Mysore Wars, and the technology later influenced the development of British military rockets.

Tipu also sought diplomatic support beyond India. He maintained contacts with powers including the Ottoman Empire and France, hoping to create a wider coalition against the English company. Such efforts reflected the international character of eighteenth-century politics. The struggle in southern India was connected to competition among European empires, conflicts in the Indian Ocean, and changing relationships between Asian states.

His reforms had limits, and their effects varied across Mysore's diverse population. Military expenditure placed heavy demands on state resources, while efforts to centralise authority could provoke resistance among local elites. His campaigns also involved coercion and harsh treatment in some conquered territories, and his religious and administrative policies remain subjects of historical debate. A balanced account must recognise both his efforts to strengthen Mysore and the costs imposed by the state he built.

Tipu Sultan's reputation has been interpreted differently by different communities and historians. He is often celebrated as a ruler who resisted British expansion, while accounts of his reign also examine forced relocations, punishments, and conflicts involving particular regional and religious communities. These aspects should be investigated through evidence and context rather than reduced to a single heroic or villainous image.

The Second Anglo-Mysore War

The Second Anglo-Mysore War began in 1780, following escalating tensions and disputes over the company's alliances and its treatment of Mysore. Haidar Ali believed that the English had failed to honour commitments made in earlier agreements. The company's cooperation with regional rivals and its growing influence in southern India intensified his concerns. When war began, Haidar Ali assembled a large force and invaded the Carnatic.

The campaign exposed the vulnerability of the company's position outside its fortified settlements. Mysorean forces advanced through the region, threatening British communications and putting pressure on the territories around Madras. In September 1780, Haidar Ali's army defeated a British force under Colonel William Baillie at Pollilur. The engagement was a major Mysorean victory, and British losses were severe. The battle demonstrated that the company could suffer devastating defeats when facing a well-led opponent operating with a strong understanding of the terrain.

The conflict continued for several years, with both sides facing difficult supply conditions and the challenge of sustaining armies far from their principal bases. The French provided some assistance to Mysore, although the scale of that support was limited by their own military and political circumstances. The English company had to balance the war in southern India with wider imperial conflicts and its responsibilities in other parts of the subcontinent.

Haidar Ali died in December 1782 while the war was still underway. His death did not end the struggle. Tipu Sultan continued the campaign, seeking to preserve Mysore's independence and prevent the company from turning its military pressure into territorial domination.

The war ended with the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784. The settlement restored territories captured during the conflict and provided for the return of prisoners. It was notable because the English company had to negotiate with Mysore as an opposing power rather than impose a one-sided settlement. For Tipu Sultan, it preserved the state's independence, although it did not remove the strategic threat posed by the company's expanding resources.

The treaty was a reminder that British dominance was not yet inevitable. The company could win battles and acquire territory, but it could also face determined resistance from Indian rulers who possessed the resources and leadership needed to challenge it. Mysore remained a major power, and the conflict between the two sides would resume.

The Third Anglo-Mysore War

The next major confrontation developed during the reign of Tipu Sultan, whose efforts to strengthen Mysore brought him into renewed conflict with the English company and its allies. The immediate crisis emerged from Tipu's intervention in Travancore in 1789. Travancore had commercial and diplomatic ties with the English, and the company's officials treated the attack as a challenge to their regional position.

The resulting conflict brought Mysore into war against a coalition that included the English company, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Marathas. The coalition was dangerous because it threatened Mysore from several directions. Tipu had to defend his territory while attempting to prevent his opponents from coordinating their campaigns.

The Third Anglo-Mysore War began in 1790. British forces under Lord Cornwallis advanced into Mysore after earlier campaigns failed to secure a quick decision. The war involved difficult movements through the southern interior, where hills, fortresses, weather, and supply routes affected military operations. Tipu's forces resisted strongly, but the coalition possessed substantial resources and could maintain pressure on multiple fronts.

In 1792, British and allied forces besieged Seringapatam, Mysore's capital. Facing the risk of further defeat and the possible destruction of his political position, Tipu Sultan accepted the Treaty of Seringapatam. The agreement required him to surrender roughly half of his territories to the victorious coalition and pay a substantial indemnity. Two of his sons were delivered temporarily into British custody as part of the settlement, a deeply symbolic event that illustrated the imbalance of power at the end of the war.

The territorial losses weakened Mysore's strategic position. The state had lost important lands and resources, while the company and its allies had strengthened their influence in southern India. Tipu remained ruler, but he now faced the difficult task of rebuilding his military and financial strength while preparing for the possibility of another conflict.

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the Death of Tipu Sultan

After the defeat of 1792, Tipu Sultan continued to seek diplomatic partners who might help him resist British expansion. He maintained contact with France and other powers, and the changing political situation in Europe created new possibilities for alliances. The rise of revolutionary France and the later campaigns of Napoleon intensified British fears that a hostile European power might support Mysore.

The English company increasingly viewed Tipu as a ruler whose independence posed a threat to its strategic position in India. The company also had powerful allies in the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas, although their interests were not always identical. The resulting pressure on Mysore reflected both local rivalries and the broader international conflict between Britain and France.

In 1799, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War began. British forces and their allies advanced toward Seringapatam, and Tipu's army fought to defend the capital. The campaign ended in May when British troops stormed the city. Tipu Sultan was killed during the fighting, and Mysore's independent military challenge to the English company suffered a decisive defeat.

The aftermath transformed the political position of the state. The Wodeyar dynasty was restored under British influence, and a new arrangement placed Mysore within the expanding system of British power. The company did not immediately administer every part of Mysore directly, but it gained decisive influence over its external relations and military position. The defeat removed one of the most determined opponents of British expansion in southern India.

Tipu's death became a powerful symbol in later historical memory. For some, he represented resistance to colonial domination; for others, his reign is also remembered through the experiences of communities affected by his campaigns and policies. His significance lies in the fact that Mysore had attempted to preserve its independence through military reform, administrative centralisation, and international diplomacy, yet ultimately could not withstand the resources and alliances assembled against it.

The Wider Struggle for India

The conflicts involving the Marathas and Mysore demonstrate that the eighteenth century was a period of intense political competition rather than a simple transition from Mughal rule to British rule. The Marathas remained a major force, Mysore built a sophisticated military state, and other Indian powers continued to pursue their own strategies. The English East India Company gained territory and revenue, but its success depended on alliances, local knowledge, Indian soldiers, and the ability to exploit political divisions.

The Maratha confederacy itself would face a major challenge in 1761 at the Third Battle of Panipat, where it suffered a devastating defeat against the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani. That battle checked Maratha expansion in northern India but did not destroy Maratha power. The confederacy recovered and remained influential in the decades that followed, although its internal divisions complicated its ability to respond to the growing company threat.

The company, meanwhile, increasingly used the revenue of Bengal to finance armies, maintain political alliances, and fight wars in other regions. Its power rested on an unusual combination of commercial capital and territorial government. A corporation whose original purpose had been to trade could now support military campaigns using taxes collected from Indian subjects. This arrangement altered the balance of power and raised fundamental questions about accountability, governance, and the relationship between private profit and public authority.

Indian rulers were not passive observers of this transformation. They reformed their armies, negotiated alliances, sought foreign support, and sometimes fought alongside the company against rival Indian states. These choices could make sense in the short term, but they also risked strengthening an organisation whose ambitions often extended beyond the immediate terms of an agreement. The history of British expansion is therefore inseparable from the decisions, conflicts, and political calculations of Indian states and their leaders.

By the end of the eighteenth century, the English East India Company had become one of the most powerful political forces in India. It had defeated Mysore, secured a dominant position in Bengal, and established growing influence over several other territories. Yet it still faced major challenges, especially from the Marathas, whose military resources and political networks remained formidable.

The contest for India was entering a new phase. The company would increasingly seek to control territory through warfare, treaties, subsidiary alliances, and the reshaping of regional governments. Indian powers would continue to resist, adapt, and negotiate, but the financial and military advantages accumulated by the company were becoming increasingly difficult to overcome.